Ackoff, Russell L. The Art of Problem Solving. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1978: 001-203, 203 pages (HD 30).
  The art (Creativity and constraints, Objectives, Controllable variables, Uncontrollable variables, Relations), Applications (National scientific communication and technology transfer system, Transportation without a future , Multidimensional organizational structure, Participation within organizations, Effect of advertising on sales, Why people drink, On keeping problems solved).
___. Preface. In: Ibid.: ix-x, 2 pages.
  Describes his progress through the philosophical, scientific, and artistic phases of his approach to problem solving. The first two together can assure no more than an adequate solution to problems. They cannot provide exciting or "beautiful" solutions. For that we must turn to the art of problem solving.
___. Creativity and Constraints. Chapter 1 in Part 1 The Art in: Ibid.: 003-018, 16 pages.
  A problem as he conceptualizes it has five types of components: (1) decision makers, (2) controllable variables, (3) Uncontrolled variables, (4) constraints, and (5) possible outcomes.
___. On Keeping Problems Solved. Chapter 12 in Part 2 Applications in: Ibid.: 189-203, 15 pages.
  Provides a description of his view of the overall design of a problem solving system: (A) environment, (B) problem object, (C) information subsystem, (D) decision making subsystem, (E) memory and comparator, (F) diagnosis and prescription and (G) symptom and presymptom analysis.


Ackoff, Russell L., and Emery, Fred E. On Human Behavior as a System. Chapter 1 in: On Purposeful Systems. Chicago: Aldine Atherton, 1972: 003-012, 10 pages (H 61).
  Outlines the purpose of the book as an attempt to provide a way of looking at human behavior as systems of purposeful (teleological) events. They argue that the mechanistic and teleological viewpoints are completely compatible, that is there is a complememtarity between them. However they feel that the latter approach is more fruitful in the study of human behavior.


Agor, Weston H. The Logic of Intuitive Decision Making: A Research Based Approach for Top Management. New York: Quorum Books, 1986: 001-177, 177 pages (HD 30).
  The logic of using intuition as a brain skill in management, The intuitive ability of executives, How top executives use intuition to make decisions, Using and developing your intuitive brain skills, Implementing a brain skill management program, How to use intuitive decision making to increase productivity, An agenda for future research, Appendix, Annotated bibliography.
___. Intuition as a Brain Skill in Management. Chapter 1 in: Ibid.: 003-011, 9 pages.
  Intuition as a management skill, Levels of intuitive awareness, Practical use of intuition in decision making, Field testing for intuitive decision making, Test instruments used.
___. The Intuitive Ability of Executives: Findings from Field Research. Chapter 2 in: Ibid.: 013-026, 14 pages.
  Test findings (Top managers, Sex differences, Differences by occupational specialty, Ethnic background, Job satisfaction), Summary.
___. How Top Executives Use Intuition to Make Decisions: Findings from Field Research. Chapter 3 in: Ibid.: 027-042, 16 pages.
  Actual use of intuition to guide decisions, When intuition is most used, Factors that impede the use of intuition, Where intuition is used in the decision making process, Techniques that executives use to activate intuition for decision making, Use of intuition kept a secret, Practicing techniques to strengthen present intuitive ability.
___. Using and Developing Your Intuitive Brain Skills. Chapter 4 in: Ibid.: 045-075, 31 pages.
  Become aware of your ability, Test your intuitive powers, Levels of intuitive ability, Practice your ability, Exercises to do alone (Getting lost, Take a risk, Church hop, Guided imagery, Computer games), Exercises for a group (Face to face, Supervisor subordinate, Exchange experiences, Individual in the middle, Solve a problem, Synergy, Group games), Brain skill management program.
___. Implementing a Brain Skill Management Program Within Your Organization. Chapter 5 in: Ibid.: 077-106, 30 pages.
  Locating and using intuitive talent (Dow Chemical Company simulation), Integrating intuition into management decision making (Return to Dow Chemical Company simulation), Systematic development of intuitive talent for applied use (New organizational model, New management practices, Establish an intuition club), Summary.
___. How to Use Intuitive Decision Making to Increase Productivity: Case Study Illustrations. Chapter 6 in: Ibid.: 107-123, 17 pages.
  The Tenneco Inc. case, The City of Phoenix case, Concluding comments and observations.
___. The Logic of Intuitive Decision Making: An Agenda for Future Research. Chapter 7 in: Ibid.: 127-132, 6 pages.
  An agenda for future research.
___. Appendix in: Ibid.: 133-145, 13 pages.
  Outline of a model intuition program, Model intuition club registration form, Global intuition network, The intuitive manager survey questionnaire.
___. Annotated Bibliography of Resources on Intuition in: Ibid.: 149-177, 29 pages.
  Using and developing your intuitive brain skills (What intuition is, Tests and measurements of intuition, Profiles of intuitive executives), Implementing a program to use and develop intuition to increase productivity (Dangers of failing to integrate intuitive brain skills into organizational decision making, How to develop and integrate intuition into individual and organizational decision making processes).


Akenson, James E. Linkages of Art and Social Studies: Focus Upon Modern Dance/Movement. Theory and Research In Social Education. 1991; 19 (1): 095-108, 14 pages (H 1).
  The characteristics of social inquiry and artistic thought are identified and analyzed in light of their implied curricular relationships. Both social scientific and artistic thought make use of logical and alogical thought patterns. The biological basis for thought makes possible linkages of social studies curriculum to artistic modes such as modern dance.


Bazerman, Max H. Introduction to Managerial Decision Making. Chapter 1 in: Judgment in Managerial Decision Making. 2nd edition ed. New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1990: 001-010, 10 pages (HD 30).
  The anatomy of a decision (1. define the problem, 2. identify the criteria, 3. weight the criteria, 4. generate alternatives, 5. rate each alternative on each criterion, 6. compute the optimal decision), Bounded rationality, Introduction to judgmental heuristics (The availability heuristic, The representativeness heuristic, Anchoring and adjustment), An outline of things to come.
___. Biases. Chapter 2 in: Ibid.: 011-042, 32 pages.
  Biases emanating from the availability heuristic (Ease of recall, Retrievability, Presumed associations), Biases emanating from the representativeness heuristic (Insensitivity to base rates, Insensitivity to sample size, Misconceptions of chance, Regression to the mean, The conjunction fallacy), Biases emanating from anchoring and adjustment (Insufficient anchor adjustment, Conjunctive and disjunctive events bias, Overconfidence), Two more general biases (The confirmation trap, Hindsight).
___. Improving Decision Making. Chapter 9 in: Ibid.: 166-180, 15 pages.
  Strategy 1: acquiring experience and expertise, Strategy 2: debiasing judgment, Strategy 3: using linear models based on expert judgment, Strategy 4: adjusting intuitive predictions, Conclusion. Together, these four strategies provide tools for "changing" and "refreezing" your intuitive decision making processes.


Beach, Lee Roy. Making the Right Decision: Organization Culture, Vision, and Planning. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1993 : 001-203, 203 pages (HD 30).
  Contemporary management decision making book that emphasizes organization culture and vision. The role of intuition or other non rational processes is not treated in this book.


Behling, Orlando, and Eckel, Norman L. Making Sense Out of Intuition. Academy of Management Executive. 1991; 5 (1): 046-054, 9 pages (HD 28).
  A small but vocal band of popular writers argues that executives should rely more on intuition and less on the systematic analysis long considered to be good management practice. Making sense out of this recommendation is hampered by the fact that those who write about intuitive management decision making conceptualize intuition in at least six separate ways: as a paranormal power or sixth sense; as a personality trait; as an unconscious process; as a set of actions; as distilled experience; and as a residual category.


Behn, Robert D., and Vaupel, James W. Quick Analysis for Busy Decision Makers. New York: Basic Books, 1982: 001-376, 376 pages (HD 30).
  Has 7 brief references to intuition. "Such an approach permits the decision maker to maintain an intuitive grasp of the problem. The role of decision analysis is not to replace intuition but to aid it. Decision analysis makes the intuitive judgments explicit. Designing a decision tree forces the decision maker to specify why his intuition tells him the decision is a dilemma." (p. 268).


Blattberg, Robert C., and Hoch, Stephen J. Database Models and Managerial Intuition: 50% Model + 50% Manager. Management Science. August 1990; 36 (8): 887-899, 13 pages (HD 28).
  In two forecasting situations, it was found that statistical models and managerial judgment achieved about the same level of predictive accuracy. Models and managers have complementary skills. The trick is to incorporate model consistency and managerial insight into one forecast. Given the limits to human information processing capacity and the explosion of data sources, managers need to move away from intuition as the sole basis for decision making. Until more is known about how to build better models, the 50% Model + 50% Manager decision heuristic is a nonoptimal but pragmatic solution offering three advantages: 1. simplicity, 2. palatability, and 3. accuracy.


Campbell, Andrew. Strategy and Intuition: A Conversation with Henry Mintzberg. Long Range Planning. April 1991; 24 (2): 108-110, 3 pages (HD 1).
  Henry Mintzberg rejects the step by step, analytical approach to strategy. Instead, he believes in the importance of intuition. Mintzberg noted that strategic planning failed as a technique because it was based on the assumption that one could get synthesis from analysis. The Design School is at the extreme end of a spectrum, where strategy is derived from deliberate thought. Grass roots emergent strategy is intuitive. It is just as extreme, but it is at the other end of the spectrum. To understand strategy, one has to accept both ends of the spectrum. The tricky business for an organization is how to evaluate intuition without killing it. Great organizations get the mix of intuition and analysis right.


Cowan, David A. The Effect of Decision Making Styles and Contextual Experience on Executives' Descriptions of Organizational Problem Formulation. Journal of Management Studies. September 1991; 28 (5): 463-483, 21 pages (HD 28).
  Introduction, Theoretical foundation (Organizational problem types, Characteristics of problem formulation process, Individual differences), Propositions (Ill structured problems, Well structured problems), Methodology (Modified MBTI, Respondents, Procedure and measurements), Results, Discussion.


Haley, Usha C. V., and Stumpf, Stephen A. Cognitive Trails in Strategic Decision Making: Linking Theories of Personalities and Cognitions. Journal of Management Studies. September 1989; 26 (5): 477-497, 21 pages (HD 28).
  Introduction, Observations on the preferences of personality types, Theories of decision heuristics in strategic processes, Decisional biases in cognitive trails (Sensing thinking, Intuition thinking, Sensing feeling, Intuition feeling), Preliminary research on cognitive trails, Implications. The four personality types seem to use distinct heuristics with corresponding patterns of bias.


Hayes, John, and Allinson, Christopher W. Cognitive Style and its Relevance for Management Practice. British Journal of Management. 1994; 5: 053-071, 19 pages (HD 28).
  This review paper addresses some of the semantic issues associated with the nature of cognitive style, identifies some of the most often cited dimensions of cognitive style, examines ways in which these styles can be classified and considers the implications of cognitive style for management practice.


Hisrich, Robert D., and Jankowicz, A. D. Intuition in Venture Capital Decisions: An Exploratory Study Using a New Technique. Journal of Business Venturing. January 1990; 5 (1): 49-62, 4 pages (HB 615).
  An exploratory study conducted in depth interviews with 5 venture capitalists to obtain information about the particular constructs each uses in thinking about investment proposals. The goal was to obtain systematic data on the content and structure of intuitions prior to the development of a questionnaire to be issued for a larger sample. The results indicated that investment constructs can be grouped into 3 areas: management, unique opportunity, and appropriate return. Each venture capitalist had his own way of structuring the intuitions involved in the investment decision.


Holloman, Russ. The Light and Dark Sides of Managerial Decision Making. Industrial Management. July/August 1989; 31 (4): 015-018, 4 pages (HD 28).
  The author defines the light side as clearly visible, neat, orderly and structured. Decision making is highly prescriptive, decision analytic. The dark side is not neat, orderly, or visible. It is characterized b y intuition and judgment. Decision models are not available for the dark side and past experience and personal performance become relevant.


Isaack, Thomas S. Intuition: An Ignored Dimension of Management. Academy of Management Review. October, 1978; 3 (4): 917-921, 5 pages (HD 28).
  The importance of intuition to management, Lack of attention to intuition in management literature, Provisional definitions of intuition and intellect, Research evidence of intuition. The study of intuition can help to improve educational methods which have relied to an unbalanced degree on verbal, analytic, and logical faculties of the intellect. The imprint of science may have led to a reliance on verbal rationality as the only way knowledge is gained so that writers of management text books have fallen into this pattern.


Leavitt, Harold J. Beyond the Analytic Manager. California Management Review. Spring, 1975; 27 (3): 005-012, 8 pages (HD 28).
  The rise of the rational analyst, Some social problems generated by the rise of the analyst in organizations, Second order power, implementation, and the emotional problems of the analyst, Some forces toward reconsideration of the role of the managerial analyst.


Leavitt, Harold J. Beyond the Analytic Manager: Part II. Ibid. Summer, 1975; 27 (4): 011-021, 11 pages.
  Some far out signals: Zen and meditation and the human brain, The world of encounter groups, The world of ESP, Some closer in signals, Summary.


Maljers, F. A. Strategic Planning and Intuition in Unilever. Long Range Planning. April 1990; 23 (2): 63-68, 6 pages (HD 1).
  Strategic management has two distinct stages: strategy formulation and strategy implementation. Successful companies will account for the requisite interdependencies of the separate strategies. In a perfect world, strategic decisions would be taken only after an exhaustive analysis of company needs, the industry context, and the external environment. However, in the real world, demands made on scarce resources mean that strategic decisions must be made swiftly . Intuition and experience play an important role in achieving a balanced and implementable strategy. In order for a strategy to be accepted, companies must take care to present the strategy so that it addresses the greatest number of needs.


March, James G. A Chronicle of Speculations about Organizational Decision Making. Introduction in: Decisions and Organizations. Edited by James G. March. Oxford: Basil Blackwell, 1988: 001-017, 17 pages (HD 30).
  A prologue, The allocation of attention, Conflict in organizations, Adaptive rules, Decision making under ambiguity, An epilogue. If scientific progress is measured by simplification, this is a story of retrogression. These speculations force us to less simple formulations. Life has proven to be more complicated than our earlier mythologies of it.
___. The Technology of Foolishness. Chapter 12 in: Ibid.: 253-265, 13 pages.
  Choice and rationality, The problem of goals, Sensible foolishness, Play and reason, Intelligence and foolishness. If we had a good technology of foolishness, it might (in combination with the technology of reason) help in a small way to develop the unusual combinations of attitudes and behaviors that describe the interesting organizations of the world.


McCall, Morgan W. Jr., and Kaplan, Robert E. Whatever it Takes: The Realities of Managerial Decision Making. 2nd ed. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1990: 001-141, 141 pages (HD 30).
  Contemporary management text on decision making with one reference to intuition that states "We found that what they called intuition had a behavioral basis." (p. 33).


Mintzberg, Henry. The New Science of Management Decision, revised edition (Book Review). Administrative Science Quarterly. June 1977; 22: 342-351, 9 pages (HD 28).
  The book celebrates the results of technology, particularly information processing. It concludes that all modes of thinking (rational and intuitive) can be represented in sequential form. What we call judgment or intuition can be simulated in the computer. Other Nobel prize winning scientists such as Roger Sperry disagree.


Morris, William T. Intuition and Relevance. Management Science. December, 1967; 14 (4): B157-B165, 9 pages (HD 28).
  Defining intuitive behavior, The implementation problem, Developing intuition (Educational hypotheses regarding intuitive skill: 1) School of hard knocks, 2) Simulated experience, 3) Reason improves intuition, and 4) Associated variable). A definition of intuitive behavior is proposed based on the willingness of the manager to use a particular verbalization of his decision process as a basis for delegating the decision to a particular recipient.


Mumby, Dennis K., and Putnam, Linda L. The Politics of Emotion: A Feminist Reading of Bounded Rationality. Academy of Management Review. 17 (3): 465-496, 32 pages (HD 28).
  Bounded rationality is grounded in male centered assumptions that exclude alternative modes of organizing. Bounded emotionality is introduced as an alternative mode of organizing. In its intuitive form, bounded rationality is utilized to frame emotions as producing "bad long run consequences for the organization." This alienates emotion from the work place.


Nutt, Paul C. Strategic Decisions Made by Top Executives and Middle Managers with Data and Process Dominant Styles. Journal of Management Studies. March 1990; 27 (2): 173-194, 22 pages (HD 28).
  Introduction, Decision style (Traditional treatment of style, Data and process dominant styles, Research questions), Testing the influence of decision style (Simulation, Scenario construction, Participants and controls, Reliability), Discussion of results (Decision style, Qualifying the effect of style in top executives, Personal characteristics of decision makers), Conclusion.


Raynolds, Peter A., and Raynolds, Gennie H. Jog Your Right Brain: Fun in the Classroom (And Research Too!). The Organizational Behavior Teaching Review. 1988-1989; 13 (3): 007-022, 16 pages (HD 30).
  This article describes an experiential exercise for use in the classroom or workshop settings. At the heart of the exercise are non verbal projective differential (PD) responses, which utilize and highlight our often neglected intuitive mental processes. PD responses are rapidly made forced choice from ten pairings of abstract visual images with respect to a set of four topics.


Robey, Daniel, and Taggart, William. Measuring Managers' Minds: The Assessment of Style in Human Information Processing. Academy of Management Review. 1981; 6 (3): 375-383, 9 pages (HD 28).
  Measurement and research (Inferring processing style from physiological state indicators, observed behavior, and self description inventories), Discussion (Reliability and validity, Subjectivity and acceptance). Research on decision making frequently identifies styles of human information processing. This article examines three approaches to the measurement of style that seem to reflect the underlying dual (rational/intuitive) nature or human consciousness. Researchers need to be aware of these complementary approaches and measurement issues that surface in the study of individual decision styles.


Rowe, Alan J., and Boulgarides, James D. Intuition in Problem Solving. In: Managerial Decision Making: A Guide to Successful Business Decisions. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, 1992: 001-244, 244 pages (HD 30).
  One brief reference to "Intuition in Problem Solving." States that intuition is one of the most powerful tools for a rapid response situation. Also notes that intuition does not always provide correct answers and is not equally applicable to all problems. Seems to take a "disparaging" tone to the nature and role of intuition in decision making. (pp. 172-173).


Russo, J. Edward, and Schoemaker, Paul J. H. Introduction. in: Decision Traps: Ten Barriers to Brilliant Decision Making and How to Overcome Them. New York: Doubleday/Currency, 1989: xi-xix, 9 pages (HD 30).
  Why does decision coaching work? The origins of this book, Most decision makers commit the same kinds of errors (1. Plunging in, 2. Frame blindness, 3. Lack of frame control, 4. Overconfidence in your judgment, 5. Shortsighted shortcuts, 6. Shooting from the hip, 7. Group failure, 8. Fooling yourself about feedback, 9. Not keeping track, 10. Failure to audit your decision process).
___. An Excellent Decision Making Process. Chapter 1 in: Ibid.: 001-011, 11 pages.
  The key element s (1. Framing, 2. Gathering intelligence, 3. Coming to conclusions, 4. Learning (or failing to learn) from feedback), Where do you spend your time? The metadecision, Metadecision questions, How a metadecision transformed Pepsi Cola, The fruits of stepping back.
___. Making the Choice. Chapter 6 in: Ibid.: 119-143, 25 pages.
  What is "intuition"? The limits of intuition, Some simple, but limited, alternatives to intuition (Occupation specific rules of thumb, Business rules of thumb), "Linear models": reliable approaches to making a choice (Subjective linear models, Bootstrapping), Objective models: still better decisions (Multiattribute utility analysis), Choosing the right techniques for your decision, The future of decision making.


Santhanam, Radhika, and Schniederjans, Marc J. Artificial Intelligence: Implications for Teaching Decision Science. Interfaces. September October, 1991; 21 (5): 063-069, 7 pages (HD 28).
  A central theme of decision science is the application of scientific and rational methodologies to managerial decision making. The emphasis on decision making and problem solving makes artificial intelligence technology useful to practitioners of decision science. We suggest that business schools offer at least two courses in AI as part of their decision science curricula. The objectives of these courses are 1) to introduce students to AI, 2) to make them aware of the role of AI in decision support, and 3) to stimulate business related AI research.


Simon, Herbert A. Making Management Decisions: The Role of Intuition and Emotion. Academy of Management Executive. February, 1987; 1 (1): 057-064, 8 pages (HD 28).
  Intuition and judgment, Split brains and forms of thought, New evidence of the processes of intuition, The expert's intuition, Intuition in chess playing, Intuition in computerized expert systems, Intuition in management, Can judgment be improved, Knowledge and behavior, The consequence of stress, Responding to problems, Looking to the future.


Taggart, William, and Robey, Daniel. Minds and Managers: On the Dual Nature of Human Information Processing and Management. Academy of Management Review. 1981; 6 (2): 187-195, 9 pages (HD 28).
  Approaches to the study of human information processing, Tracing management interest in HIP, Neurological evidence of dual (left rational and right intuitive ) processing, A psychological foundation for decision style, Philosophical foundations for dual rational - intuitive processing, Suggested strategies for management decisions, Implications for management education. This paper presents dual (rational - intuitive) human information processing as an aid to understanding the decision styles of manages. The resulting framework differentiates a range of rational to intuitive decision styles and integrates four decision strategies expressed as approaches to the person and the environment.


Taggart, William; Robey, Daniel; and Kroeck, K. Galen. Managerial Decision Styles and Cerebral Dominance: An Empirical Study. Journal of Management Studies. March, 1985; 22 (2): 175-192, 18 pages (HD 28).
  This study's results suggest some systematic relationship between right (rational) and left (intuitive) EEG groups and scores on various psychological instruments. Given the substantial difference in collecting these two types of data, this association is encouraging evidence that psychological variables have some relation to physiological functioning. Of the nineteen psychological scales included in the study, nine entered and were retained in the discriminant function. Only three bore signs inconsistent with the predictions between cerebral dominance and each psychological variable. Managerial tasks commonly call for use of the whole (rational - intuitive) brain, and studies of management style should recognize the limitations of concepts and measures which reflect only a partial measure.


Taggart, William, and Valenzi, Enzo. Assessing Rational and Intuitive Styles: A Human Information Processing Metaphor. Journal of Management Studies. March, 1990; 27 (2): 149-172, 24 pages (HD 28).
  Overview of the article, The research setting (Rational - intuitive HIP metaphor, Assessment of HIP styles), Elaborating the HIP metaphor (Management, Physiological, and Philosophical foundations), Developing the HIP survey (Term pairs, Item construction), Statistical analysis (Surveys, Subjects, Factor loadings, Predicted associations, Validity, Results of predictions), Summary. This paper outlines a conceptual model that elaborates the rational - intuitive styles of human information processing into three modes each that is the foundation for an improved version of the HIP Survey which is now called the Personal Style Inventory (PSI).

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